心理学与生活

Note on Psychology

Judgements rely on heuristics People’s judgments often rely on heuristics rather than on formal methods of analysis. Heuristics are informal rules of thumb that provide shortcuts, reducing the complexity of making judgments.

Availability heuristic is a judgment based on the information readily available in memory. It has two components. The first component is the relative ease or fluency with which you can retrieve information. The second component of availability is the content of memories you find easy to retrieve.
Representativeness heuristic is a cognitive strategy that assigns an object to a category on the basis of a few characteristics regard as representative of that category. Research suggests that representative values often reflect an average of an event’s moment of peak intensity and the intensity at the event’s end.
Anchoring heuristic is an insufficient adjustment up or down from an original starting value when judging the probable value of some event or outcome.

Attribution for Success and Failure Attributions are judgments about the causes of outcomes. It can vary in three dimensions.

internal-external dimension: to what extent does a casual factor reside within an individual, or is it a general factor in the environment.
stability-instability dimension: to what extent is a causal factor likely to be stable and consistent over time, or unstable and varying.
global-specific dimension: to what extent is a causal factor highly specific, limited to a particular task or situation, or global, applying widely across a variety of settings.

The way people explain events in their lives—from winning at cards to being turned down for a date—can become lifelong, habitual attributional styles.

The optimistic attributional style sees failure as the result of external causes—“The test was unfair”—and of events that are unstable or modifiable and specific—“If I put in more effort next time, I’ll do better, and this one setback won’t affect how I perform any other task that is important to me.’’

The pessimistic attributional style focuses on the causes of failure as internally generated. Furthermore, the bad situation and the individual’s role in causing it are seen as stable and global—“It won’t ever change, and it will affect everything.” Because they believe themselves to be doomed to fail, pessimists perform worse than others would expect, given objective measures of their talent.

In academic settings, students who are more optimistic report higher levels of motivation.

Emotion

Research suggests that good social relationships are the single most important source of happiness.

Psychology and life

Definition

Psychology: The scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes. The goals of the psychologist conducting basic research are to describe, explain, predict, and control behavior.

Structuralism(The Element of the Mind): The study of the structural of mind and behavior; the view that all human mental experience can be understood as a combination of simple elements or events.

Functionalism(Mind with a Purpose): The perspective on mind and behavior that focus on the examination of their functions in an organism’s interactions with the environment.

Perspective on Psychology

Psychodynamic perspective: A psychological model in which behavior is explained in term of past experience and motivational forces; actions are viewed as stemming from inherent instincts, biological drives, and attempts to resolve conflicts between personal needs and social requirements.

Behaviorist perspective: The psychological perspective primarily concerned with observable behavior that can be objectively recorded and with the relationship of observable behavior that can be objectively recoded and with the relationships of observable behavior to environmental stimuli.

Humanistic perspective: A psychological model that emphasizes an individuals’ phenomenal world and inherent capacity for making rational choices and developing to maximum potential.

Cognitive perspective: The perspective on psychology that stresses human though and the process of knowing, such as attending, thinking, remembering, expecting, solving problem, fantasizing, and consciousness.

Biological perspective: The approach to identifying causes of behavior that focuses on the functioning of genes, the brain, the nervous system, and the endocrine system.

Evolutionary perspective: The approach to psychology that stresses the importance of behavior and mental adaptiveness, based on the assumption that mental capabilities involved over millions of years to serve particular adaptive purposes.

Sociocultural perspective: The psychological perspective that focuses on cross-cultural differences in the causes and consequences of behavior.

Research methods in psychology

Theory

A theory is an organized set of concepts that explains a phenomenon or set of phenomenon. Psychological theories commonly include the assumption of determinism, the doctrine that all events—physical, behavioral, and mental—are determined by specific causal factors that are potentially knowable. Researchers also assume that behavior and mental processes follow lawful patterns of relationships, patterns that can be discovered and revealed through research

Combat biases

Standardization: A set of uniform procedures for treating each participant in a test, interview, or experiment, or for recording data. Operational definition: A definition of a variable or condition in terms of the specific operation or procedure used to determine its presence.

Experimental Methods

double-blind control: An experimental technique in which biased expectations of experimenters are eliminated by keeping both participants and experimental assistants unaware of which participants have received which treatment.

between-subject design: A research design in which different group of participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions or to control conditions.

within-subject design: A research design that uses each participant as his or her own control; for example, the behavior of an experimental participant before receiving treatment might be compared to his or her behavior after receiving treatment.

Psychological Measurement

Goal: generate findings that are both reliable and valid Reliability: The degree to which a test produces similar scores each time it is used; stability or consistency of the scores produced by an instrument. Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it was intended to measure.

Self-report measure: A self-behavior that is identified through a participant’s own observations and reports.

behavioral measure: Overt actions or reactions that is observed and recorded, exclusive of self-report behavior.

Statistical Supplement

significant difference: A difference between experimental groups or conditions that would have occurred by chance less than an accepted criterion; in psychology, the criterion most often used is a probability of less than 5 times out of 100, or p<.05

The Biological and Evolutionary Bases of Behavior

Heredity and Behavior

Main point

Species originate and change over time because of natural selection
In the evolution of humans, bipedalism and encephalization were responsible for subsequent advances, including language and culture.
The basic unit of heredity is the gene. Genes interact with environments to yield phenotypic traits.

Key terms

genotype（基因型）: The genetic structure an organism inherits from its parents.
phenotype（表型）: The observable characteristics of an organism, resulting from the interaction between organism’s genotype and its environment.
heredity（遗传）: The biological transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
genetics（遗传学）: The study of the inheritance of physical and psychological traits from ancestors.
human behavior genetics（人类行为遗传学）: The area of study that evaluates the genetic component of individual differences in behavior and traits.
sociobiology（社会生物学）: A field of research that focuses on evolutionary explanations for the social behavior and social systems of humans and other animal species.
evolutionary psychology（进化心理学）: The study of behavior and mind using the principles of evolutionary theory.
DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid): The physical basis for the transmission of genetic information.
gene（基因）: The biological unit of heredity; discretion section of a chromosome responsible for transmission of traits.
genome（基因组）: The genetic information for an organism, stored in the DNA of its chromosomes（染色体）.
heritability（遗传力）: The relative influence of genetics—versus environment—in determining patterns of behavior.

The Nervous System in Action

neuroscience: The scientific study of the brain and of the links between brain activity and behavior.

The Neuron

Main Point

The neuron, the basic unit of the nervous system, receives, processes, and relays information to other cells, glands, and muscles.
Neurons relay information from the dendrites through the cell body (soma) to the axon to the terminal buttons.
Sensory neurons receive messages from specialized receptor cells and send them toward the CNS. Motor neurons direct messages from the CNS to muscles and glands. Interneurons relay information from sensory neurons to other interneurons or to motor neurons. Mirror neurons respond when an individual observes another individual performing a motor action.

Term

neuron structure

neuron（神经元）: A cell in the nervous system specialized to receive, process, and/or transmit information to other cells.
dendrite（树突）: One of the branched fibers of neurons that receive incoming signals.
soma（胞体）: The cell body of a neuron, containing the nucleus and cytoplasm.
axon（轴突）: The extended fiber of a neuron through which nerve impulses travel from the soma to the terminal buttons.
terminal button（终扣）: A bulblike structure at the branched ending of an axon that contains vesicles filled with neurotransmitters.

type of neuron

sensory neuron（感觉神经元）: Neuron that carries messages from sense receptors toward the central nervous system.
motor neuron（运动神经元）: Neuron that carries messages away from the central nervous system toward the muscles and glands.
interneuron（中间神经元）: Brain neuron that relays messages from sensory neurons to other interneurons or to motor neurons.
mirror neuron: Neuron that responds when an individual observes another individual performing a motor action. It may enable us to understand the intentions of other people’s behavior.

other cell and material

glia（胶质）: The cells that hold neurons together and facilitate neural transmission, remove damaged and dead neurons, and prevent poisonous substances in the blood from reaching the brain.
myelin sheath（髓鞘）: Insulating material that surrounds axons and increases the speed of neural transmission. Glial cells form an myelin sheath.

Action Potentials

Main points

Once the summation of inputs to a neuron exceeds a specific threshold, an action potential is sent along the axon to the terminal buttons.
All-or-none action potentials are created when the opening of ion channels allows an exchange of ions across the cell membrane.

Terms

excitatory input（兴奋性输入）: Information entering a neuron that signals it to fire.
inhibitory input（抑制性输入）: Information entering a neuron that signals it not to fire.
action potential（动作电位）: The nerve impulse activated in a neuron that travels down the axon and causes neurotransmitters to released into a synapse.
resting potential（静息电位）: The polarization of cellular fluid within a neuron, which provides the capability to produce an action potential.
ion channel（离子通道）: A portion of neurons’ cell membranes that selectively permits certain ions to flow in and out.
all-or-none law（全或无定律）: The rule that the size of the action potential is unaffected by increases in the intensity of stimulation beyond the threshold level.
refractory period（不应期）: The period of rest during which a new nerve impulse cannot be activated in a segment of an axon.

Process of action potentials

When neuron is inactive, there is more potassium inside and sodium outside the axon. Sodium-potassium pumps leaves the fluid inside a neuron with a slightly negative voltage (70/1,000 of a volt) relative to the fluid outside.
Excitatory inputs causes the ion channels to begin to allow sodium ions to flow in while inhibitory inputs causes the ion channels to work harder to keep the inside of the cell negatively charged.
An action potential begins when excitatory inputs are strong enough to depolarize cell from -70mV to -55mV. Once happened, sodium rushes into the neuron.
The leading edge of depolarize causes ion channels in the adjacent region of the axon to open and allow sodium to rush in, causing the signal passes down the axon.
When the inside of the neuron becomes positive, the channels that allow sodium to flow in close and the channels that allow potassium to flow out open.
The outflow of potassium ions restores the negative charge of the neuron.
Sodium-potassium pumps works again to restore the concentration of sodium and potassium.

Synaptic Transmission

Main point

Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic gap between neurons. Once they diffuse across the gap, they lodge in the receptor molecules of the postsynaptic membrane.
Whether these neurotransmitters excite or inhibit the membrane depends on the nature of the receptor molecule.

Terms

synapse（突触）: The gap between one neuron and another.
synaptic transmission（突触传递）: The relaying of information from one neuron to another across the synaptic gap.
neurotransmitter（神经递质）: Chemical messenger released from a neuron that crosses the synapse from one neuron to another, stimulating the postsynaptic neuron.
neuromodulator（神经调质）: Any substance that modifies or modulates the activities of the postsynaptic neuron.

Process of synaptic transmission

When the action potential arrive at the terminal button, synaptic vesicles move toward and affix themselves to the interior membrane of the terminal button.
Lon channels open to allow calcium ions into the terminal button, which causes the rupture of the synaptic vesicles and the release of whatever neurotransmitters they contain.
Neurotransmitters are dispersed rapidly across the synaptic cleft, the gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane of the next.
The neurotransmitter attach to receptor molecules embedded in the postsynaptic membrane only under certain condition.
The neurotransmitter provide ‘fire’ or ‘not fire’ information to this next neuron.
Once the neurotransmitter completed its job. it detaches from the receptor molecule and drifts back into the synaptic gap.
It is either decomposed through the action of enzymes or reabsorbed into the presynaptic terminal button for quick reuse.

Biology and Behavior

Eavesdropping on the Brain

Main Points

Neuroscientists use several methods to research the relation between brain and behavior: studying brain-damaged patients, producing lesions at specific brain sites, electrically stimulating the brain, recording brain activity, and imaging the brain with computerized devices.

Term

Interventions in the brain

Broca’s area（布诺卡区）: The region of the brain that translates thoughts into speech or signs.
lesion（损伤）: Injury to or destruction of brain tissue.
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation(rTMS，重复经颅刺激）: A technique for producing temporary inactivation of brain areas using repeated pulses of magnetic stimulation.

Recording and Imaging Brain Activity

electroencephalogram(EEG, 脑电图）: A recording of the electrical activity of the brain.
computerized axial tomography(CT or CAT, 计算机断层扫描术）: A technique that uses narrow beams of X-rays passed through the brain at several angles to assemble complete brain images.
positron emission tomography(PET, 正电子发射断层扫描术） scan: Brain image produced by a device that obtains detailed picture of activity in the living brain by recording the radioactivity emitted by cells during different cognitive or behavioral activities.
magnetic resonance imaging(MRI, 磁共振成像）: A technique for brain imaging that scans the brain using magnetic fields and radio waves.
functional MRI(fMRI, 功能性磁共振成像）: A brain-imaging technique that combines benefits of both MRI and PET scans by detecting magnetic changes in the flow of blood to cells in the brain.

The Nervous System

Main Points

The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system (CNS).
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of all neurons connecting the CNS to the body. The PNS consists of the somatic nervous system, which regulates the body’s skeletal muscles, and the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which regulates life-support process.

Terms

fig3.12

central nervous system(CNS, 中枢神经系统）: The part of nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.
peripheral nervous system(PNS, 外周神经系统）: The part of the nervous system composed of the spinal and cranial nerves that connect the body’s sensory receptors to the CNS and the CNS to the muscles and glands.
- somatic nervous system（躯体神经系统）: The subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles and skin.
- autonomic nervous system（自主神经系统，ANS) The subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s involuntary motor responses by connecting the sensory receptors to the central nervous system(CNS) and the CNS to the smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
  - sympathetic division（交感神经）: The subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that deals with emergency response and the mobilization of energy.
  - parasympathetic division（副交感神经）: The subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that monitors the routine operation of the body’s internal functions and conserves and restore body energy.

Brain Structure and Their Functions

Main points

The brain consists of three integrated layers: the brain stem, limbic system, and cerebrum.
The brain stem is responsible for breathing, digestion, and heart rate.
The limbic system is involved in long-term memory, aggression, eating, drinking, and sexual behavior.
The cerebrum controls higher mental functions.
Some functions are lateralized to one hemisphere of the brain. For example, most individuals have speech localized in the left hemisphere.
Although the two hemispheres of the brain work smoothly in concert, they play relatively greater roles for different tasks.

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The Brain Stem, Thalamus, and Cerebellum

- brain stem（脑干）: The brain structure that regulates the body’s basic life processes. - medulla（延髓）: The region of the brain stem that regulates breathing, walking, and heartbeat. - pons（桥脑）: The region of the brain stem that connects the spinal cord with the brain and links parts of the brain to one another. - reticular formation（网状结构）: The region of the brain stem that alerts the cerebral cortex to incoming sensory signals and is responsible for maintaining consciousness and awakening from sleep. - thalamus（丘脑）: The brain structure that relays sensory impulses to the cerebral cortex. - cerebellum（小脑）: The region of the brain attached to the brain stem that controls motor coordination, posture, and balance as well as the ability to learn control of body movements.

The Limbic System

psy_3_16 limbic system（边缘系统）: The region of the brain that regulates emotional behavior, basic motivational urges, and memory, as well as major physiological functions.

hippocampus（海马）: The part of the limbic system that is involved in the acquisition of explicit memory
amygdala（杏仁核）: The part of the limbic system that controls emotion, aggression, and the formation of emotional memory.
hypothalamus（下丘脑）: The brain structure that regulates motivated behavior(such as eating and drinking) and homeostasis.
homeostasis（内稳态）: Constancy or equilibrium of the internal conditions of the body.

The Cerebrum

cerebrum（大脑）: The region of the brain that regulates higher cognitive and emotional functions.
cerebral cortex（大脑皮层）: The outer surface of the cerebrum.
cerebral hemispheres（大脑半球）: The two halves of the cerebrum, connected by the corpus callosum.
corpus callosum（胼胝体）: The mass of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the cerebrum.
frontal lobe（额叶）: Region of the brain located above the lateral fissure and in front of the central sulcus; involved in motor control and cognitive activities. It includes Broca’s area.
parietal lobe（顶叶）: Region of the brain behind the frontal lobe and above the lateral fissure; contains somatosensory cortex.
occipital lobe（枕叶）: Rearmost region of the brain; contains primary visual cortex.
temporal lobe（颞叶）: Region of the brain found below the lateral fissure; contains auditory cortex. It includes a region called Wernicke’s area.
Wernicke’s area（维尔尼克区）: A region of the brain that allow fluent speech production and comprehension.
motor cortex（运动皮层）: The region of the cerebral cortex that controls the action of the body’s voluntary muscles, located just in front of the central sulcus in the frontal lobes.
somatosensory cortex（躯体感觉皮层）: The region of the parietal lobes that processes sensory input from various body areas.
auditory cortex（听皮层）: The area of the temporal lobes that receives and processes auditory information.
visual cortex（视皮层）: The region of the occipital lobes in which visual information is processed.
association cortex: The parts of the cortex in which many high-level brain processes occur.

The Endocrine System

Main Points

The endocrine system produces and secretes hormones into the bloodstream.
Hormones help regulate growth, primary and secondary sexual characteristics, metabolism, digestion, and arousal.
New cell growth and life experiences reshape the brain after birth.

Terms

endocrine system（内分泌系统）: The network of glands that manufacture and secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
hormone（激素）: One of the chemical messengers, manufactured and secreted by the endocrine glands, that regulate metabolism and influence body growth, mood, and sexual characteristics.
pituitary gland（脑垂体）: Located in the brain, the gland that secretes growth hormone and influences the secretion of hormones by other endocrine glands
testosterone（睾丸酮）: The male sex hormone, secreted by the testes, that stimulates production of sperm and is also responsible for the development of male secondary sex characteristics.
estrogen（雌性激素）: The female sex hormone, produced by the ovaries, that is responsible for the release of eggs from ovaries as well as for the development and maintenance of female reproductive structures and secondary sex characteristics.
plasticity（可塑性）: Changes in the performance of the brain; may involve the creation of new synapses or changes in the functions of existing synapses.
neurogenesis（神经发生）: The creation of new neurons.

Sensation and Perception

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The process of perception is divided into three stages: sensation, perceptual organization, and identification(or recognition) of objects.

perception（知觉）: The processes that organize information in the sensory image and interpret it as having produced by properties of objects or events in the external, three-dimensional world.
sensation（感觉）: The process by which stimulation of a sensory receptor gives rise to neural impulses that result in an experience, or awareness, of conditions inside or outside the body.
perceptual organization（知觉组织）: The processes that put sensory information together to give the perception of a coherent scene over the whole visual field.
identification and recognition（辨认与识别）: Two ways of attaching meaning to percepts.

Sensory Knowledge of the world

The task of perception is to determine what the distal (external) stimulus is from the information contained in the proximal (sensory) stimulus.
Psychophysics investigates psychological responses to physical stimuli. Researchers measure absolute thresholds and just noticeable differences between stimuli.
Signal detection allows researchers to separate sensory acuity from response biases.
Researchers in psychophysics have captured the relationship between physical intensity and psychological effect.
Sensation translates the physical energy of stimuli into neural codes via transduction.

distal stimulus（远距刺激）: In the processes of perception, the physical object in the world, as contrasted with the proximal stimulus, the optical image on the retina.
proximal stimulus（近距刺激）: The optical image on the retina; contrasted with the distal stimulus, the physical object in the world.
psychophysics（心理物理学）: The study of the correspondence between physical simulation and psychological experience.
absolute threshold（绝对阈限）: The minimum amount of physical energy needed to produce a reliable sensory experience; operationally defined as the stimulus level at which a sensory signal is detected half the time.
psychometric function（心理测量函数）: A graph that plots the percentage of detections of a stimulus(on the vertical axis) for each stimulus intensity(on the horizon axis).
sensory adaptation（感觉适应）: A phenomenon in which receptor cell lose their power to respond after a period of unchanged stimulation; allows a more rapid reaction to new sources of information.
response bias（反应偏差）: The systematic tendency as a result of non-sensory factors for an observer to favor responding in a particular way.
signal detection theory（信号检测论）: A systematic approach to the problem of response bias that allow an experimenter to identify and separate the roles of sensory stimuli and the individual’s criterion level in producing the final response.
difference threshold（差别阈限）: The smallest physical difference between two stimuli that can still be recognized as a difference; operationally defined as the point at which the stimuli are recognized as different half of the time.
just noticeable difference(JND, 最小可觉差）:The smallest difference between two sensations that allows them to be discriminated.
Weber’s law（韦伯定律）: An assertion that the size of a difference threshold is proportional to the intensity of the standard stimulus.
transduction（换能）: Transformation of one form of energy into another; for example, light is transformed into neutral impulses.
sensory receptor（感受器）: Specialized cell that converts physical signals into cellular signals that are processed by the nervous system.

The Visual System

Photoreceptors in the retina, called rods and cones, convert light energy into neural impulses.
Ganglion cells in the retain integrate input from receptors and bipolar cells. Their axons form the optic nerves that meet at the optic chiasma.
Visual information is distributed to several different areas of the brain that process different aspects of the visual environment, such as how things look and where they are.
The wavelength of light is the stimulus for color.
Color sensations differ in hue, saturation, and brightness.
Color vision theory combines the trichromatic theory of three color receptors with the opponent-process theory of color systems composed of opponent elements.

pupil（瞳孔）: The opening at the front of the eye through which light passes.
lens（晶状体）: The flexible tissue that focuses light on the retina.
accommodation（调节）: The process by which the ciliary muscles changes the thickness of the lens of the eye to permit variable focusing on near and distant objects.
retina（视网膜）: The layer at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptors and converts light energy to neutral responses.
photoreceptor（光感受器）: Receptor cell in the retina that is sensitive to light.
rod（杆体细胞）: One of the photoreceptors concentrated in the periphery of the retina that are most active in dim illumination; rods do not produce sensation of color.
cone（锥体细胞）: One of the photoreceptors concentrated in the center of the retina that are responsible for visual experience under normal viewing conditions for all experiences of color.
dark adaptation （暗适应）: The gradual improvement of the eyes’ sensitivity after a shift in illumination from light to near darkness.
fovea （中央凹）: Area of the retina that contains densely packed cones and forms the point of sharpest vision.
bipolar cell （双极细胞）: Nerve cell in the visual system that combines impulses from many receptors and transmits the results to ganglion cells.
ganglion cell （神经节细胞）: Cell in the visual system that integrates impulses from many bipolar cells in a single firing rate.
horizontal cell （水平细胞）: One of the cells that integrates information across the retina; rather than sending signals toward the brain, horizontal cells connect receptors to each other.
amacrine cell（无长突细胞）: One of the cells that integrates information across the retina; rather than sending signals toward the brain, amacrine cells link bipolar cells to other bipolar cells and ganglion cells to other ganglion cells.
blind spot（盲点）: The region of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the back of the eye; no receptor cells are present in this region.
optic nerve（视神经）: The axons of the ganglion cells that carry information from the eye toward the brain.
receptive field（感受野）: The area of the visual field to which a neuron in the visual system responds.
hue（色调）: The dimension of color space that captures the qualitative experience of the color of light.
saturation（饱和度）: The dimension of color space that captures the purity and vividness of color sensations.
brightness（明度）: The dimension of color space that captures the intensity of light.
complementary colors（互补色）: Colors opposite each other on the color circle; when additively mixed, they create the sensation of white light.
trichromatic theory（三原色原理）: The theory that there are three types of color receptors that produce the primary color sensations of red, green, and blue.
opponent-process theory（拮抗加工理论）: The theory that all color experiences arise from three systems, each of which includes two ‘’opponent’’ elements (red versus green, blue versus yellow, and black versus white).

Hearing

Hearing is produced by sound waves that vary in frequency, amplitude, and complexity.
In the cochlea, sound waves are transformed into fluid waves that move the basilar membrane. Hairs on the basilar membrane stimulate neural impulses that are sent to the auditory cortex.
Place theory best explains the coding of high frequencies, and frequency theory best explains the coding of low frequencies.
To compute the direction from which sound is arriving, two types of neural mechanisms compute the relative intensity and timing of sounds coming to each ear.

pitch（音高）: Sound quality of highness or lowness; primarily dependent on the frequency of the sound wave.
loudness（响度）: A perceptual dimension of sound influenced by the amplitude of a sound wave; sound waves in large amplitudes are generally experienced as loud and those with small amplitudes as soft.
timbre （音色）: The dimension of auditory sensation that reflects the complexity of a sound wave.
cochlea（耳蜗）: The primary organ of hearing; a fluid-filled coiled tube located in the inner ear.
basilar membrane（基底膜）: A membrane in the cochlea that, when set into motion, stimulates hair cells that produce the neural effect of auditory stimulation.
auditory nerve（听神经）: The nerve that carries impulses form the cochlea to the cochlear nucleus of the brain
place theory（地点说）: The theory that different frequency tones produce maximum activation at different locations along the basilar membrane, with the result that pitch can be coded by the place at which activation occurs.
frequency theory（频率说）: The theory that a tone produces a rate of vibration in the basilar membrane equal to its frequency, with the result that pitch can be coded by the frequency of the neural response.
volley principle（齐射原理）: An extension of frequency theory, which proposes that when peaks in a sound wave come too frequently for a single neuron to fire at each peak, several neurons fire as a group at the frequency of the stimulus tone.
sound localization（声音定位）: The auditory processes that allow the spatial origins of environmental sounds.

Your other senses

Smell and taste respond to the chemical properties of substances and work together when people are seeking and sampling food.
Olfaction is accomplished by odor-senstive cells deep in the nasal passages.
Test receptors are test buds embedded in papillae, mostly in the tongue.
The cutaneous(skin) senses give sensations of pressure and temperature.
The vestibular sense gives information about the direction and rate of body motion.
The kinesthetic sense gives information about the position of body parts and helps coordinate motion.
Pain is the body’s response to potentially harmful stimuli.
The physiological response to pain involves sensory response at the site of the pain stimulus and nerve impulses moving between the brain and the spinal cord.

olfaction（嗅觉）: The sense of smell.
olfactory bulb（嗅球）: The center where odor-sensitive receptors send their signals, located just below the frontal lobes of the cortex.
pheromone（信息素）: Chemical signal released by an organism to communicate with other members of species; pheromone often serve as long-distance sexual attractors.
gustation（味觉）: The sense of taste.
cutaneous senses（肤觉）: The skin senses that register sensations of pressure, warmth, and cold.
vestibular sense（前庭觉）: The sense that tells how one’s own body is oriented in the world with respect to gravity.
kinesthetic sense（动觉）: The sense concerned with bodies position and movement of body parts relative to one another.
pain（痛觉）: The body’s response to noxious stimuli that are intense enough to cause, or threaten to cause, tissue damage.
gate-control theory（门控理论）: A theory about pain modulaiton that proposes that certain cells in the spinal cord act as gates to interrupt and block some pain signals while sending others to the brain.

Organizational processes in perception

Perceptual processes organize sensations into coherent images and give you perception of objects and patterns.
Both your personal goals and the properties of the objects in the world determine where you will focus your attention.
The Gestalt psychologists provided several laws of perceptual grouping, including proximity, similarity, good continuation, closure, and common fate.
Perceptual processes integrate over both time and space to provide an interpretation of the environment.
Binocular, motion, and pictorial cues all contribute to the perception of depth.
You tend to perceive objects as having stable size, shape, and lightness.
Knowledge about perceptual illusions can provide constraints on ordinary perceptual processes.

Attention Processes

attention（注意）: A state of focused awareness on a subset of the available perceptual information.
goal-directed attention（目标指向）: A determinant of why people select some parts of sensory input for further processing; it reflects the choices made as a function of one’s own goals.
stimulus-driven attention（刺激驱动）: A determinant of why people select some parts of sensory input for further processing; occurs when features of stimuli –– objects in the environment –– automatically capture attentions, independent of the local goals of a perceiver.
Gestalt psychology（格式塔心理学）: A school of psychology that maintains that psychological phenomena can be understood only when viewed as organized, structured wholes, not when broken down into primitive perceptual elements.
phi phenomenon(phi 现象）: The simplest form of apparent motion, the movement illusion in which one or more stationary lights going on and off in succession are perceived as a single moving light.

Depth Perception

binocular depth cue（双眼深度线索）: Depth cue that uses information from both eyes.
retinal disparity（视网膜像差）: The displacement between the horizontal positions of corresponding images in the two eyes.
convergence（视轴辐合）: The degree to which the eyes turn inward to fixate on an object.
motion parallax（运动视差）: A source of information about depth in which the relative distances of objects from a viewer determine the amount and direction of their relative motion in the retinal image.
monocular depth cue（单眼深度线索）: Depth cue that uses information from only one eye.
perceptual constancy （知觉恒常性：The ability to retain an unchanging percept of an object despite variations in the retinal image.
size constancy（大小恒常性）: The ability to perceive the true size of an object despite variations in the size of its retinal image.
shape constancy（形状）: The ability to perceive the true shape of an object despite variations in the shape of the retinal image.
lightness constancy（亮度恒常性）: The tendency to perceive the whiteness, grayness, or blackness of object as constant across changing levels of illumination.
illusion（错觉）: An experience of a stimulus pattern in a manner that is demonstrably incorrect but shared by others in the same perceptual environment.

Identification and Recognition processes

During the final stage of perceptual processing –– identification and recognition of objects –– percepts are given meaning through processes that combine bottom-up and top-down influences.
Ambiguity may rise when the same sensory information can be organized into different percepts.
Context, exceptions, and perceptual sets may guide recognition of incomplete or ambiguous data in one direction rather than another equally possible one.

bottom-up processing（自下而上加工）: Perceptual analyses based on the sensory data available in the environment; results of analysis are passed upward toward more abstract representations.
top-down processing （自上而下加工）: Perceptual processes in which information from an individual’s past experience, knowledge, expectations, motivations, and background influence the way a perceived object is interpreted and classified.
ambiguity（模糊性）: Property of perceptual object that may have more than one interpretation.
set（定势）: A temporary readiness to perceive or react to a stimulus in a particular way.

Mind, Consciousness, and Alternate States

The Contents of Consciousness

Consciousness is an awareness of the mind’s contents.
The contents of waking consciousness contrast with non-conscious processes, preconscious memories, unattended information, the unconscious, and conscious awareness.
Research techniques such as think-aloud protocols and experience sampling are used to study the contents of consciousness.

consciousness（意识）: A state of awareness of internal events and the external environment.
non-conscious（非意识）: Not typically available to consciousness or memory.
preconscious memory（前意识记忆）: Memory that is not currently conscious but that can easily be called into consciousness when necessary.
in-attentional blindness: Peoples’s failure to perceive objects when their attention is focused elsewhere.

The Functions of Consciousness

Consciousness aids your survival.

Consciousness reduces the flow of stimulus input by restricting what you notice and what you focus on.
Consciousness allow you to selectively store information.
Consciousness can make you stop, think, and consider alternative based on past knowledge and imagine various consequences.

Consciousness enables you to construct both personal and culturally shared realities.

Personal construction of reality is your unique interpretation of a current situation based on your general knowledge, memories of past experiences, current needs, values, beliefs, and future goals.
Cultural construction of reality are ways of thinking about the world that are shared by most members of a particular group of people.

Sleep and Dreams

Circadian rhythms reflect the operation of a biological clock.
Patters of brain activity change over the course of a night’s sleep. REM sleep is signaled by rapid eye movements.
If someone is routinely made to perform at times of day that are out of sync with his personal rhythms, he is suffer from a type of “social jet lag”, which has a negative impact on both achievement and behavior.
The amount of sleep and relative proportion of REM to NERM sleep change with age. The amount of REM sleep decreases considerably over the year while NREM diminishes less sharply.
REM and NREM sleep serve different functions, including conservation of energy and consolidation of new memories .
Sleep disorders such as insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea have a negative impact on people’s ability to function during waking time.
Freud proposed that the content of dreams is unconscious material slipped by a sleeping censor.
In other cultures, dreams are interpreted regularly, often by people with special cultural roles.
Some dream theories have focused on biological explanations for the origins of dreams.
Studies confirmed that the content of dreams show a good deal of continuity with dreamers’ waking concerns. Dreams also show a dream-lag effect: they are more likely to include memory elements from the period 5-7 days before the dream rather than 2-4 days before.
Lucid dreaming is an awareness that one is dreaming.

circadian rhythm（生理节律）: A consistent pattern of cyclical body activities, usually lasting 24-25 hours and determined by an internal biological clock.
rapid eye movements(REM, 快速眼动睡眠）: A behavior sign of the phase of sleep during which the sleeper is likely to be experiencing dreamlike mental activity.
non-REM(NREM) sleep（非快速眼动睡眠）: The period during which a sleeper does not show rapid eye movement; characterized by less dream activity than during REM sleep.
insomnia（失眠症）: The chronic inability to sleep normally; symptoms include difficulty in falling asleep, frequent waking, inability to return to sleep, and early-morning awakening.
narcolepsy（发作性睡眠症）: A sleep disorder characterized by an irresistible compulsion to sleep during the daytime.
sleep apnea（睡眠窒息）: A sleep disorder of the upper respiratory system that causes the person to stop breathing while asleep.
somnambulism（梦游症）: A disorder that causes sleepers to leave their beds and wander while still remaining asleep; also known as sleepwalking.
nightmare（梦靥）: A frightening dream that usually wakes up the sleeper.
sleep terrors（夜惊）: Episodes in which sleepers wake up suddenly in an extreme state of arousal and panic.
latent content（潜性梦境）: In Freudian dream analysis, the hidden meaning of a dream.
manifest content（显性梦境）: In Freudian dream analysis, the surface content of a dream, which is assumed to mask the dream’s actual meaning.
dream work: In Freudian dream analysis, the process by which the internal censor transforms the latent content of a dream into manifest content.
lucid dreaming（清醒梦境）: The theory that conscious awareness of dreaming is a learnable skill that enables dreamers to control the direction and content of their dreams.

Altered States of Consciousness

Hypnosis is an alternate state of consciousness characterized by the ability of hypnotizable people to change perception, motivation, memory and self-control response to suggestions.
Hypnotizability is a relatively stable attribute which peaks just before adolescence and declines thereafter.
Meditation changes conscious functioning by ritual practices that focus attention away from external concerns to inner experience.

hypnosis（催眠）: An altered state of awareness characterized by deep relaxation, susceptibility to suggestions, and changes in perception, memory, motivation, and self-control.
hypnotizability（可催眠性）: The degree to which an individual is responsive to standardized hypnotic suggestion.
meditation（冥想）: A form of consciousness alteration designed to enhance self-knowledge and well-being through reduced self-awareness.

Mind-Altering Drugs

Psychoactive drugs affect mental processes by temporarily changing consciousness as they modify nervous system activity.
Among psychoactive drug that alter consciousness are hallucinogens, opiates, depressants, and stimulants.
Hallucinogenic drugs typically act in the brain by affecting the use of the chemical neurotransmitter serotonin. Cannabis’（大麻） active ingredient cannabinoids（大麻素） achieve their mind-altering effects by binding to brain sites sensitive to naturally occurring substances in the brain.
Opiates（鸦片）, such as heroin and morphine, suppress physical sensation and response to stimulation.
The depressants include barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and alcohol. These substances tend to depress (slow down) the mental and physical activity of the body by inhibiting or decreasing the transmission of nerve impulses in the central nervous system.
Stimulants, such as amphetamines, methamphetamines, and cocaine, keep the drug user aroused and induce states of euphoria. Stimulants achieve their effects by increasing the brain levels of neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine.

psychoactive drug（精神促动药物）: Chemical that affects mental processes and behavior by temporarily changing conscious awareness of reality.
tolerance（耐受性）: A situation that occurs with continued use of a drug in which an individual requires greater dosages to achieve the same effect.
physiological dependence（生理依赖）: The process by which the body becomes adjust to or dependent on a drug.
addiction（成瘾）: A condition in which the body requires a drug in order to function without physical and psychological reactions to its absence; often the outcome of tolerance and dependence.
psychological dependence（心理依赖）: The psychological need or craving for a drug.
hallucinogen（迷幻剂）: Drug that alters cognitions and perceptions and causes hallucinations.
depressant（镇静剂）: Drug that depresses or slows down the activity of the central nervous system.
Stimulant（兴奋剂）: Drug that causes arousal, increased activity, and euphoria.

Learning and Behavior Analysis

The Study of Learning

Learning（学习） is a process based on experience that results in a relatively consistent change in behavior or behavior potential.
Learning-performance distinction（学习 - 行为表现差异） is the difference between what has been learned and what is expressed, or performed, in overt behavior. It occurs because of behavior potential.
Habituation and sensitization are examples of learning.
Behavior analysis（行为分析） is the area of psychology that focuses on the environment determinants of learning and behavior.

habituation（习惯化）: A decrease in a behavioral response when a stimulus is presented repeatedly.
sensitization（敏感化）: A increase in a behavioral response when a stimulus is presented repeatedly.

Recapping Main Points

Learning entails a relatively consistent change in behavior or behavior potential based on experience.
Behaviorists believe that much behavior can be explained by simple learning processes.
They also believe that many of the same principles of learning apply to all organisms.

Classical Conditioning: Learning Predictable Signals

Classical conditioning（经典条件作用） is a type of learning in which a behavior(conditioned response) comes to be elicited by a stimulus(conditioned stimulus) that has acquired its power through an association with a biologically significant stimulus (unconditioned stimulus)
A reflex is an unconditioned response elicited by unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioning is usually most effective in a delayed conditioning paradigm(i.e. CS happens immediately after UCS stops.), with a short interval between the onsets of the CS and UCS.
The process of extinction and spontaneous recovery occurs when the CS no longer predicts the UCS after classical conditioning acquisition.

acquisition（习得）: The stage in a classical conditioning experiment during which the conditioned response is first elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
extinction（消退）: In conditioning, the weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of a reinforcer or unconditioned stimulus.
spontaneous recovery（自发恢复）: The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

To the new stimulus similar to the original CS, both stimulus discrimination and discrimination may occur to make sure an organism not to be either over-selective or over-responsive to stimulus.

stimulus generalization（刺激泛化）: The automatic extension of conditioned responding to similar stimuli that have never been paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
stimulus discrimination（刺激辨别）: A conditioning process in which an organism learns to respond differently to stimuli that diff from the conditioned stimulus on some dimension.

A neutral stimulus will become an effective CS only if it is both appropriately contingent and informative. Contingent means CS must be reliably predict the occurrence of the UCS. Informative means the stimulus is intense and contrasts with other stimuli.
In the context of drug addiction, tolerance arises because the settings under taking drug acts as CS and elicit compensatory response which reduces the effect of drug.
Taste-aversion learning is a biological constraint on learning in which an organism learns in one trail to avoid a food whose ingestion is followed by illness. It will develop with only one pairing of the CS and UCS and with a long lag between the CS and UCS. It will often be permanent after one experience.

Recapping Main Points

In classical conditioning, first investigated by Pavlov, an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). A neutral stimulus paired with the UCS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), which elicits a response, called the conditioned response (CR).
Extinction occurs when the UCS no longer follows the CS.
Stimulus generalization is the phenomenon whereby stimuli similar to the CS elicit the CR.
Discrimination learning narrows the range of CSs to which an organism responds.
For classical conditioning to occur, a contingent and informative relationship must exist between the CS and UCS.
Classical conditioning explains many emotional responses and drug tolerance.
Taste-aversion learning suggests that species are genetically prepared for some forms of associations.

reflex（反射）: An unlearned response elicited by specific stimuli that have biological relevance for an organism.
unconditioned stimulus(UCS, 无条件刺激）: In classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response.
unconditioned response(UCR, 无条件反应）: In classical conditioning, the response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior training or learning.
conditioned stimulus(CS, 条件刺激）: In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response.
conditioned response(CR, 条件反应）: In classical conditioning, a response elicited by some previously neutral stimulus that occurs as a result of pairing the neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning: Learning about Consequences

As with classical conditioning, spontaneous recovery is also a feature of operant conditioning.
The sequence of discriminative stimulus-behavior-consequence as the three-term contingency. Organisms also generalize responses to other stimuli that resemble the discriminative stimulus.
It is advised that parents first try positive reinforcement rather than punishment.
According to respond deprivation theory, behaviors become preferred and, therefore, reinforcing when an animal is prevented from engaging in them. That’s why virtually any activity can come to serve as a reinforcer.

Recapping Main Points

Thorndike demonstrated that behaviors that bring about satisfying outcomes tend to be repeated.
Skinner’s behavior analytic approach centers on manipulating contingencies of reinforcement and observing the effects on behavior.
Behaviors are made more likely by positive and negative reinforcement. They are made less likely by positive and negative punishment.
Contextually appropriate behavior is explained by the three-term contingency of discriminative stimulus-behavior-consequence.
Primary reinforces are stimuli that function as reinforcers even when an organism has not had previous experience with them. Conditioned reinforcers are acquired by association with primary reinforcers.
Probable activities function as positive reinforcers.
Behavior is affected by schedules of reinforcement that may be varied or fixed and delivered in intervals or in ratios.
Complex responses may be learned through shaping.
Instinctual drift may overwhelm some response-reinforcement learning.

law of effect（效果律）: a basic law of learning that states that the power of a stimulus to evoke a response is strengthened when the response is followed by a reward and weakened when it is not followed by a reward.
operant conditioning（操作性条件作用）: Learning in which the probability of a response is changed by a change in its consequences.
operant（操作）: Behavior emitted by an organism that can be characterized in term of the observable effects it has on the environment.
reinforcement contingency（强化相倚）: A consistent relationship between a response and the changes in the environment that it produces.
reinforcer（强化物）: Any stimulus that, when made contingent on a response, increases the probability of that response.
- positive reinforcement（正强化）: A behavior is followed by the presentation of an appetitive stimulus.
- negative reinforcement（负强化）: A behavior is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus.
  - escape conditioning（逃脱作用）: A form of learning in which animals acquire a response that will allow them to escape from an aversive stimulus.
  - avoidance conditioning（回避作用）: A form of learning in which animals acquire responses that allow them to avoid aversive stimuli before they begin.
operant extinction（操作性消退）: When a behavior no longer produces predictable consequences, its return to the level of occurrence it had before operant conditioning.
punisher（惩罚物）: Any stimulus that, when made contingent on a response, decreases the probability of that response.
- positive punishment（阳性惩罚）: A behavior is followed by the presentation of an aversive stimulus.
- negative punishment（阴性惩罚）: A behavior is followed by the removal of an appetitive stimulus.
discriminative stimulus（辨别性刺激）: Stimulus that acts as a predictor of reinforcement, signaling when particular behaviors will result in positive reinforcement.
three-term contingency（三项相倚）: The means by which organisms learn that, in the presence of some stimuli but not others, their behavior is likely to have a particular effect on their environment.
primary reinforcer（初级强化物）: Biologically determined reinforcer, such as food and water.
conditioned reinforcer（条件性强化物）: In classical conditioning, a formerly neutral stimulus that has become a reinforcer. Such as money, grades.
schedule of reinforcement（强化程序表）: In operant conditioning, a pattern of delivering and withholding reinforcement.
partial reinforcement effect（部分强化效应）: The behavioral principle that states that responses acquired under intermittent reinforcement are more difficult to extinguish than those acquired with continuous reinforcement.
fixed-ratio (FR, 固定比率程序表） schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response made after a fixed number of responses.
variable-ratio (VR, 可变比率程序表） schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response made after a variable number of responses whose average is predetermined.
fixed-interval (FI, 固定间隔程序表） schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first respond made after a fixed period of time.
variable-interval(VI, 可变间隔程序表） schedule: A schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response made after a variable period of time whose average is predetermined.
shaping by successive approximations（连续接近塑造法）: A behavioral method that reinforces responses that successively approximate and ultimately match the desired response.
instinctual drift（本能漂移）: The tendency for learned behavior to drift toward instinctual behavior over time.

Cognitive Influences on Learning

Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an individual’s behavior becomes more probable after he or she observes other people’s behaviors being reinforced.
Research suggests that children who observe a large number of aggressive acts may learn to be aggressive themselves.

Recapping Main Points

Some forms of learning reflect more complex processes than those of classical or operant conditioning.
Animals develop cognitive maps to enable them to function in a complex environment.
Other species may be able to encode concepts such as same versus different.
Behaviors can be vicariously reinforced or punished. Humans and other animals can learn through observation.

comparative cognition（比较认知）: The study of the development of cognitive abilities across species and the continuity of abilities from nonhuman to human animals.
cognitive map（认知地图）: A mental representation of physical space.
observation learning（观察学习）: The process of learning new responses by watching the behavior of another.

Memory

What is Memory

Cognitive psychologists study memory as a type of information processing.
Memory involving conscious effort are explicit. Unconscious memories are implicit.
Declarative memory is memory for facts; procedural memory is memory for how to perform skills.
Memory is often viewed as a three-stage process of encoding, storage, and retrieval.

memory（记忆）: The mental capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information.
explicit uses of memory（记忆的外显作用）: Conscious effort to encode or recover information through memory processes.
implicit uses of memory（记忆到内隐作用）: Availability of information through memory processes without conscious effort to encode or recover information.
declarative memory（陈述性记忆）: Memory for information such as facts and events. Explicit and implicit memories are all declarative memories.
procedural memory（程序性记忆）: Memory for how things get done; the way perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills are acquired, retained, and used.
encoding（编码）: The process by which a mental representation is formed in memory.
storage（存储）: The retention of encoded material over time.
retrieval（提取）: The recovery of stored information from memory.

Memory Use for the Short Term

Iconic memory has large capacity but very short duration.
Short-term memory(STM) has a limited capacity and lasts only briefly without rehearsal.
Maintenance rehearsal can extend the presence of material in STM indefinitely.
STM capacity can be increased by chunking unrelated items into meaningful groups.
The broader concept of working memory includes STM.
The four components of working memory provide the resources for moment-by-moment experiences of the world.

iconic memory（映像记忆）: Memory system in the visual domain that allows large amounts of information to be stored for very brief durations.
short-term memory(STM, 短时记忆）: Memory processes associated with preservation of recent experiences and with retrieval of information from long-term memory; short-term memory is of limited capacity and stores information for only a short length of time without rehearsal.
chunking（组块）: The process of taking single items of information and recording them on the basis of similarity or some other organizing principle.
working memory（工作记忆）: A memory resource that is used to accomplish tasks such as reasoning and language comprehension; consists of the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive and episodic buffer.

Long-Term Memory: Encoding and Retrieval

Long-term memory (LTM) constitutes your total knowledge of the world and of yourself. It is nearly unlimited in capacity.
Your ability to remember information relies on the match between circumstances of encoding and retrieval.
Retrieval cues allow you to access information in LTM.
Episodic memory is concerned with memory for events that have been personally experienced. Semantic memory is memory for the basic meaning of words and concepts.
Similarity in context between learning and retrieval aids retrieval.
The serial position curve is explained by distinctiveness in context.
Information processed more deeply is typically remembered better.
For implicit memories, it is important that the processes of encoding and retrieval be similar.
Ebbinghaus studied the time course of forgetting.
Interference occurs when retrieval cues do not lead uniquely to specific memories.
Memory performance can be improved through elaborative rehearsal and mnemonics.
In general, feelings-of-knowing accurately predict the availability of information in memory.

long-term memory(LTM, 长时记忆）: Memory processes associated with the preservation of information for retrieval at any later time.
retrieval cue（提取线索）: Internally or externally generated stimulus available to help with the retrieval of a memory.
recall（回忆）: A method of retrieval in which an individual is required to reproduce the information previously presented.
recognition（再认）: A method of retrieval in which an individual is required to identify stimuli as having been experienced before.
episodic memory（情景记忆）: Long-term memory for an autobiographical event and the context in which it occurred.
semantic memory（语义记忆）: Generic, categorical memory, such as the meaning of words and concepts.
encoding specificity（编码特异性）: The principle that subsequent retrieval of information is enhanced if cues received at the time of recall are consistent with those present at the time of encoding.
serial position effect（系列位置效应）: A characteristic of memory retrieval in which the recall of beginning and end items on a list is often better than recall of items appearing in the middle.
primacy effect（首因效应）: Improved memory for items at the start of a list.
recency effect（近因效应）: Improved memory for items at the end of a list.
temporal distinctiveness: The extent to which a particular item stands out from or is distinct from other items in time.
transfer-appropriate processing（传输适宜性加工）: The perspective that suggests that memory is best when the type of processing carried out at encoding matches the processes carried out at retrieval.
levels-of-processing theory（加工水平理论）: A theory that suggests that the deeper the level at which information was processed, the more likely it is to be retained in memory.
priming（启动）: In the assessment of implicit memory, the advantage conferred by prior exposure to a word or situation.
proactive interference（前摄干扰）: Circumstances in which past memories make it more difficult to encode and retrieve new information.
retroactive interference（倒摄干扰）: Circumstances in which the formation of new memories makes it more difficult to recover older memories.
elaborative rehearsal（精细复述）; A technique for improving memory by enriching the encoding of information.
mnemonic（记忆术）: Strategy or device that uses familiar information during the encoding of new information to enhance subsequent access to the information in memory.
metamemory（元记忆）: Implicit or explicit knowledge about memory abilities and effective memory strategies; cognition about memory.

Structures in Long-Term Memory

Concepts are the memory building blocks of thinking. The are formed when memory processes gather together classes of objects or ideas with common properties.
Concepts are often organized in hierarchies, ranging from general, to basic level, to specific.
Schemas are more complex cognitive clusters.
All theses memory structures are used to provide expectations and a context for interpreting new information.
Remembering is not simply recoding but is a constructive process.
People encode flashbulb memories in response to events with great emotional significance, but those memories may not be more accurate than everyday memories.
New information can bias recall, making eyewitness memory unreliable when contaminated by post-event input.

concepts（概念）: Mental representation of a kind or category of items and ideas.
basic level（基础水平）: The level of categorization that can be retrieved from memory most quickly and used most efficiently.
schema（图式）: General conceptual framework, or cluster of knowledge, regarding objects, people, and situations; knowledge package that encodes generalizations about the structure of the environment.
prototype（原型）: The most representative example of a category.
exemplar（范例）: Member of a category that people have encountered.
reconstructive memory（重构性记忆）: The process of putting information together based on general types of stored knowledge in the absence of a specific memory representation.
flashbulb memory（闪光灯记忆）: People’s vivid and richly detailed memory in response to personal or public events that have great emotional significance.

Biological Aspects of Memory

Difference brain structures (including the hippocampus, the amygdala, the cerebellum, the striatum, and the cerebral cortex) have been shown to be involved in different types of memories.
Experiments with individual with memory disorders have helped investigators understand how different types of memories are acquired and represented in the brain.
Brain-imaging techniques have extended knowledge about the brain bases of memory encoding and retrieval.

engram（痕迹）: The physical memory trace for information in the brain.
amnesia（遗忘症）: A failure of memory caused by physical injury, disease, drug use, or psychological trauma.
anterograde amnesia（顺行性遗忘症）: An inability to form explicit memories for events that occur after the time of physical damage to the brain.
retrograde amnesia（逆行性遗忘症）: An inability to retrieve memories from the time before physical damage to the brain.

Cognitive Processes

Studying Cognition

Cognitive psychologists study the mental processes and structures that enable you to perceive, use language, reason, solve problems, and make judgments and decisions.
Researchers use reaction time measures to break up complex tasks into underlying mental processes.

cognitive process（认知过程）: One of the higher mental processes, such as perception, memory, language, problem solving, and abstract thinking.
cognition（认知）: Processes of knowing, including attending, remembering, and reasoning; also the content of the processes, such as concepts and memories.
cognitive psychology（认知心理学）: The study of higher mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, and thinking.
cognitive science（认知科学）: The interdisciplinary field of study of systems and processes that manipulate information.
serial processes（系列过程）: Two or more mental processes that are carried out in order, one after the other.
parallel processes（平行过程）: Two or more mental processes that are carried out simultaneously.
controlled process（控制过程）: Process that requires attention; it is often difficult to carry out more than one controlled process at a time.
automatic process（自动过程）: Process that does not require attention; it can often be performed along with other tasks without interference.

Language Use

Language users both produce and understand language.
Speakers design their utterances to suit particular audiences.
Speech errors reveal many of the processes that go into speech planning.
Language understanding often requires the use of the context to resolve ambiguities.
Memory representations of meaning begin with propositions supplemented with inferences.
Studies of language evolution have focused on grammatical structure.
The language individuals speak may play a role in determining how they think.

language production（语言生成）: What people say, sign, and write, as well as the processes they go through to production these messages.
audience design（听众设计）: The process of shaping a message depending on the audience for which it is intended.
inference（推论）: Missing information filled in on the basis of a sample of evidence or on the basis of prior beliefs and theories.
linguistic relativity（语言相对论）: The hypothesis that the structure of the language an individual speaks has an impact on the way in which that individual thinks about the world.

Visual Cognition

Visual representations can be used to supplement propositional representations.
Visual representations allow you to think about visual aspects of your environment.
People form visual representations that combine verbal and visual information.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

Problem solvers must define initial state, goal state, and the operations that get them from the initial to the goal state.
Creativity is often assessed using tests of divergent and convergent thinking.
Deductive reasoning involves drawing conclusions from premises based on rules of logic.
Inductive reasoning involves inferring a conclusion from evidence based on its likelihood or probability.

problem solving（问题解决）: Thinking that is directed toward solving specific problems and that moves from an initial state to a goal state by means of a set of mental operations.
reasoning（推理）: The process of thinking in which conclusions are drawn from a set of facts; thinking directed toward a given goal or objective.
problem space（问题空间）: The elements that make up a problem: the initial state, the incomplete information or unsatisfactory conditions the person starts with; the goal state, the set of information or state the person wishes to achieve; and the set of operations, the steps the person takes to move from the initial state to the goal state.
algorithm（算法）: A step-by-step procedure that always provides the right answer for a particular type of problem.
heuristic（启发式）: Cognitive strategies, or ‘’rules of thumb,’’ often used as shortcuts in solving a complex inferential task.
think-aloud protocol（出声思维法）: Report made by an experimental participant of the mental process and strategies he or she uses while working on a task.
functional fixedness（功能固着）: An inability to perceive a new use for an object previously associated with some other purpose; adversely affects problem solving and creativity.
creativity: The ability to generate ideas or products that are both novel and appropriate to the circumstances.
divergent thinking: An aspect of creativity characterized by an ability to produce unusual but appropriate responses to problems.
convergent thinking: An aspect of creativity characterized by the ability to gather together different sources of information to solve a problem.
insight: Circumstances of problem solving in which solutions suddenly come to mind.
deductive reasoning（演绎推理）: A form of thinking in which one draws a conclusion that is intended to follow logically from two or more statements or premises.
belief-bias effect（信念偏见效应）: A situation that occurs when a person’s prior knowledge, attitudes, or values distort the reasoning process by influencing the person to accept invalid arguments.
inductive reasoning（归纳推理）: A form of reasoning in which a conclusion is made about the probability of some state of affairs, based on the available evidence and past experience.

Judgement and Decision Making

Much of judgment and decision making is guided by heuristics—mental shortcuts that can help individuals reach solutions quickly
Availability, representativeness, and anchoring all allow for efficient judgments under uncertainty.
Decision making is affected by the way in which different options are framed.
The possibility of regret makes some decision hard, particularly for individuals who are maximizers rather than satisficers.

mental set: The tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used to respond to a previous problem.
judgement（判断）: The process by which people form options, reach conclusions, and make critical evaluations of events and people based on available material; also, the product of the mental activity.
decision making（决策）: The process of choosing between alternatives; selecting or rejecting available options.
availability heuristic（可得性启发式）: A judgment based on the information readily available in memory.
representativeness heuristic（代表性启发式）: A cognitive strategy that assigns an object to a category on the basis of a few characteristics regarded as representative of that category.
anchoring heuristic（锚定启发式）: An insufficient adjustment up or down from an original starting value when judging the probable value of some event or outcome.
frame（框架）: A particular description of a choice; the perspective from which a choice is described or framed affects how a decision is made and which option is ultimately exercised.

Intelligence and Intelligence Assessment

What is Assessment

Psychological assessment has a long history, beginning in ancient China. Many important contributions were made by Sir Francis Galton.
A useful assessment tool must be reliable, valid, and standardized. A reliable measure gives consistent results. A valid measure assesses the attributes for which the test was designed. Three important types of validity are content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity.
A standardized test is always administered and scored in the same way; norms allow a person’s score to be compared with the averages of others of the same age, sex, and culture.

psychological assessment（心理测量）: The use of specified procedure to evaluate the abilities, behaviors, and personal qualities of people.
formal assessment（正式测量）: The systematic procedures and measurement instruments used by trained professionals to assess an individual’s functioning, aptitudes, abilities, or mental states.
test-retest reliability（重测信度）: A measure of the correlation between the scores of the same people on the same test given on two different occasions.
internal consistency（内部一致性）: A measure of reliability; the degree to which a test yields similar scores across its different parts, such as odd versus even items.
content validity（内容效度）: The extent to which a test adequately measures the full range of the domain of interest.
criterion-related validity（效标效度）: The degree to which test scores indicate a result on a specific measure that is consistent with some other criterion of the characteristic being assessed.
construct validity（结构效度）: The degree to which a test adequately measures an underlying construct.
norm（常模）: Standard based on measurement of a large group of people; used for comparing the scores of an individual with those of others within a well-defined group
standardization（标准化）: A set of uniform procedures for treating each participant in a test, interview, or experiment, or for encoding data.

Intelligence Assessment

Binet began the tradition of objective intelligence testing in France in the early 1900s. Scores were given in terms of mental ages and were meant to represent children’s current level of functioning.
In the United States, Terman created the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and popularized the concept of IQ.
Wechsler designed intelligence tests for adults, children, and preschoolers.
The definitions of both intellectual disability and giftedness focus both on IQ scores and day-to-day performance.

intelligence（智力）: The global capacity to profit from experience and to go beyond given information about the environment.
mental age（心理年龄）: In Binet’s measure of intelligence, the age at which a child is performing intellectually, expressed in terms of the average age at which normal children achieve a particular score.
chronological age（生理年龄）: The number of months or years since an individual’s birth.
intelligence quotient(IQ, 智商）: An index derived from standardized tests of intelligence; originally obtained by dividing an individual’s mental age by chronological age and then multiplying by 100; now directly computed as an IQ test score.
intelligence disability（智力缺陷）: Condition in which individuals have IQ scores of 70-75 or below and also demonstrate limitations in the ability to bring adaptive skills to bear on life tasks.
learning disorder（学习障碍）: A disorder defined by a large discrepancy between individuals’ measured IQ and their actual performance.

Theories of Intelligence

Psychometric analyses of IQ suggest that several basic abilities, such as fluid and crystallized aspects of intelligence, contribute to IQ scores.
Contemporary theories conceive of and measure intelligence very broadly by considering the skills and insights people use to solve the types of problems they encounter.
Sternberg differentiates analytical, creative, and practical aspects of intelligence.
Gardner identifies eight types of intelligence that both include and go beyond the types of intelligence assessed by standard IQ measures. Recent research has focused on emotional intelligence.

psychometrics（心理测量学）: The field of psychology that specializes in mental testing.
g(g 因素）: According to Spearman, the factor of general intelligence underlying all intelligent performance.
crystallized intelligence（晶体智力）: The facet of intelligence involving the knowledge a person has already acquired and the ability to access that knowledge; measures by vocabulary, arithmetic, and general information tests.
fluid intelligence（液体智力）: The aspect of intelligence that involves the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems.
emotional intelligence: Type of intelligence defined as the abilities to perceive, appraise, and express emotions accurately and appropriately, to use emotions to facilitate thinking, to understand and analyze emotions, to use emotional knowledge effectively, and to regulate one’s emotions to promote both emotional and intellectual growth.

The politics if Intelligence

Almost from the outset, intelligence tests have been used to make negative claims about ethnic and racial groups.
Because of the reasonably high heritability of IQ, some researchers have attributed the lower scores of some racial and cultural groups to innate inferiority.
Environmental disadvantages and stereotype threat appear to explain the lower scores of certain groups. Research shows the group differences can be affected through environmental interventions.

heritability estimate（遗传力估计）: A statistical estimate of the degree of inheritance of a given trait or behavior, assessed by the degree of similarity between individuals who vary in their extent of genetic similarity.
stereotype threat（刻板印象威胁）: The threat associated with being at risk for confirming a negative stereotype of one’s group.

Assessment and society

Though often useful for prediction and as an indication of current performance, test results should not be used to limit an individual’s opportunities for development and change.
When the result of an assessment will affect an individual’s life, the techniques used must be reliable and valid for that individual and for the purpose in question.

Human Development Across the Life Span

Studying Development

Researchers collect normative, longitudinal, and cross-sectional data to document change.

development psychology（发展心理学）: The branch of psychology concerned with interaction between physical and psychological processes and with stages of growth from conception throughout the entire life span.
normative investigation（常模研究）: Research effort designed to describe what is characteristic of a specific age or developmental stage.
developmental age（发展年龄）: The chronological age at which most children show a particular level of physical or mental development.
longitudinal design（纵向设计）: A research design in which the same participants are observed repeatedly, sometimes over many years.
cross-sectional design（横断设计）: A research method in which groups of participants of different chronological ages are observed and compared at a given time.

Physical Development Across the Life Span

Environmental factors can affect physical development while a child is still in the womb
Newborns and infants possess a remarkable range of capabilities: The are prewired for survival
Through puberty, adolescents achieve sexual maturity.
Some physical changes in late adulthood are consequences of disuse, not inevitable deterioration.

physical development（生理发展）:The bodily changes, maturation, and growth that occur in an organism starting with conception and continuing across the life span.
zygote（受精卵）: The single cell that results when a sperm fertilizes an egg.
germinal stage（胚种期）: The first two weeks of prenatal development following conception.
embryonic stage（胚胎期）: The second stage of prenatal development, lasting from the third through eighth weeks after conception.
fetal stage（胎儿期）: The third stage of prenatal development, lasting from the ninth week through birth of the child.
teratogen（致畸物）: Environmental factors such as diseases and drugs that cause structural abnormalities in a developing fetus.
maturation（成熟）: The continuing influence of heredity throughout development, the age-related physical and behavioral changes characteristic of a species.
puberty（青春期）: The process through which sexual maturity is attained.
menarche（月经初潮）: Then onset of menstruation.

Cognitive Development Across the Life Span

Piaget’s key ideas about cognitive development include development of schemes, assimilation, accommodation, and the four-stage theory of discontinuous development. The four stages are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
Many of Piaget’s theories are now being altered by ingenious research paradigms that reveal infants and young children to be more competent than Piaget had thought.
Children develop a theory of mind, which is the ability to explain and predict other people’s behavior based on an understanding of their mental states.
Cross-cultural research has questioned the universality of cognitive developmental theories.
Age-related declines in cognitive functioning are typically evident in only some abilities.

cognitive development（认知发展）: The development of processes of knowing, including imagining, perceiving, reasoning, and problem solving.
scheme（图式）: Piaget’s term for a cognitive structure that develops as infants and young children learn to interpret the world and adapt to their environment.
assimilation（同化）: According to Piaget, the process whereby new cognitive elements are fitted in with old elements or modified to fit more easily; this process works in tandem with accommodation.
accommodation（顺应）: According to Piaget, the process of restructuring or modifying cognitive structures so that new information can fit into them more easily; this process works in tandem with assimilation.
object permanence（客体恒常性）: The recognition that objects exist independently of an individual’s action or awareness; an import cognitive acquisition of infancy.
egocentrism（自我中心）: In cognitive development, the inability of a young child at the preoperational stage to take the perspective of another people.
centration（中心化）: Preoperational children’s tendency to focus their attention on only one aspect of a situation and disregard other relevant aspects.
conservation（守恒）: According to Piaget, the understanding that physical properties do not change when nothing is added or taken away, even though appearances may change.
theory of mind: The ability to explain and predict other people’s behavior based on an understanding of their mental states.
internalization（内化）: According to Vygotsky, the process through which children absorb knowledge from the social context.
wisdom（智慧）: Expertise in the fundamental pragmatics of life.

Acquiring Language

Many researchers believe that humans have an inborn language-making capacity. Even so, interactions with adult speakers is an essential part of the language acquisition process.
Like scientists, children develop hypotheses about the meanings and grammar of their language. These hypotheses are often constrained by innate principles.

phoneme（音素）: Minimal unit of speech in any given language that makes a meaningful difference in speech and production and reception; r and l are two distinct phonemes in English but variations of one in Japanese.
infant-directed speech（婴儿指向型言语）: A form of speech addressed to infants that include slower speed, distinctive intonation, and structural simplifications.
child-directed speech（儿童指向型言语）: A form of speech addressed to children that includes slower speed, distinctive intonation, and structural simplifications.
language-making capacity（语言运用能力）: The innate guidelines or operating principles that children bring to the task of learning a language.
over-regularization（过度规则化）: A grammatical error, usually appearing during early language development, in which rules of the language are applied too widely, resulting in incorrect linguistic forms.

Social development takes place in a particular context.
Erik Erikson conceptualized the life span as a series of crises with which individuals must cope.
Children begin the process of social development with different temperaments.
Socialization begins with an infant’s attachment to a caregiver.
Failure to make this attachment leads to numerous physical and psychological problems.
Adolescents must develop a personal identity by forming comfortable social relationships with parents and peers.
The central concerns of adulthood are organized around the needs of intimacy and generativity.
People become less socially active as they grow older because they selectively maintain only those relationships that matter most to them emotionally.
People assess their lives, in part, by their ability to contribute positively to the lives of others.

social development（社会性发展）: The ways in which individuals’ social interactions and expectations change across the life span.
psychosocial stages（心理社会发展阶段）: Proposed by Erik Erikson, one of the successive developmental stages that focus on an individual’s orientation toward the self and others; these stages incorporate both the sexual and social aspects of a person’s development and the social conflicts that arise from the interaction between the individual and the social environment.
socialization（社会化）: The lifelong process whereby an individual’s behavioral patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes, and motives are shaped to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society.
temperament: A child’s biologically based level of emotional and behavioral response to environmental events.
attachment（依恋）: Emotional relationship between a child and the regular caregiver.
imprinting（印刻）: A primitive form of learning in which some infant animals physically follow and form an attachment to the first moving object they see and/or hear.
parenting style（教养方式）: The manner in which parents rear their children; an authoritative parenting style, which balances demandingness and responsiveness, is seen as the most effective.
contact comfort（接触性安慰）: Comfort derived from an infant’s physical contact with the mother or caregiver.
intimacy（亲密感）: The capacity to make a full commitment—sexual, emotional, and moral—to another person.
generativity（繁殖）: A commitment beyond one’s self and one’s partner to family, work, society, and future generations; typically, a crucial state in development in one’s 30s and 40s.

Sex and Gender Differences

Research has revealed biologically based sex differences between the brains of men and women.
Children’s gender stereotypes are most rigid between ages 5 and 7.
Beginning at birth, parents and peers help bring about the socialization of gender roles.

sex difference（性差异）: One of the biologically based characteristics that distinguish males from females.
gender: A psychological phenomenon that refer to learned sex-related behaviors and attitudes of males and females.
gender identity（性别认同）: One’s sense of maleness or famaleness; usually includes awareness and acceptance of one’s biological sex.
gender stereotype（性别刻板印象）: Belief about attributes and behaviors regarded as appropriate for males and females in a particular culture.

Moral Development

Kohlberg defined stages of moral development.
Subsequent research has evaluated gender and cultural differences in moral reasoning.

morality（道德）: A system of beliefs and values that ensures that individuals will keep their obligations to others in society and will behave in ways that do not interfere with the rights and interest of others.

Learning to Age Successfully

Successful cognitive aging can be defined as people optimizing their functioning in select domains that are of highest priority to them and compensating for losses by using substitute behavior.

selective optimization with compensation（补偿的选择性优化）: A strategy for successful aging in which one makes the most gains while minimizing the impact of losses that accompany normal aging.

Motivation

Understanding Motivation

Motivation is a dynamic concept used to describe the processes directing behavior.
Motivational analysis help explain how biological and behavioral processes are related and why people pursue goals despite obstacles and adversity.
Drive theory conceptualizes motivation as tension reduction.
People are also motivated by incentives, external stimuli that are not related to physiological needs.
Instinct theory suggests that motivation often relies on innate stereotypical responses.
Social and cognitive psychologists emphasize the individual’s perception of, interpretation of, and reaction to a situation.
Abraham Maslow suggested that human needs can be organized hierarchically.
Although real human motivation is more complex, Maslow’s theory provides a useful framework for summarizing motivational forces.

motivation（动机）: The process of starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities; includes mechanisms involved in preferences for one activity over another and the vigor and persistence of responses.
drive（驱力）: Internal state that arise in response to a disequilibrium in an animal’s physiological needs.
homeostasis（动态平衡）: Constancy or equilibrium of the internal conditions of the body.
incentive（诱因）: External stimulus or reward that motivates behavior although it does not relate directly to biological needs.
instinct（本能）: Preprogrammed tendency that is essential to a species’ survival.
social learning theory（社会学习理论）: The learning theory that stresses the role of observation and the imitation of behaviors observed in others.
hierarchy of needs（需要层次）: Maslow’s view that basic human motives form a hierarchy and that the needs at each level of the hierarchy must be satisfied before the next level can be achieved; these needs progress from basic biological needs to the need for self-actualization.

Eating

The body has a number of mechanisms to regulate the initiation and cessation of eating.
Cultural norms have an impact on what and how much people eat
Genes play an important role in obesity but the impact of genes is affected by environmental factors.
If individuals become restrained eaters, their diets may result in weight gain rather than weight loss.
Eating disorders are life-threatening illnesses that may arise from genetic factors, misperceptions of body image, and cultural pressures.

anorexia nervosa（神经性厌食症）: An eating disorder in which an individual weighs less than 85 percent of her or his expected weight but still expresses intense fear of becoming fat.
bulimia nervosa（神经性贪食症）: An eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by measures to purge the body of excess calories.
binge eating disorder（暴食症）: An eating disorder characterized by out-of-control binge eating without subsequent purges.

Sexual Behaviors

From an evolutionary perspective, sex is the mechanism for producing offspring.
In animals, the sex drive is largely controlled by hormones.
The work of Masters and Johnson provided the first hard data on the sexual response cycles of men and women.
Evolutionary psychologists suggest that much of human sexual behavior reflects different mating strategies for men and women.
Sexual scripts define culturally appropriate forms of sexual behavior.
Homosexuality and heterosexuality are determined both by genetics and personal and social environments.

sexual arousal（性唤起）: The motivational state of excitement and tension brought about by physiological and cognitive reactions to erotic stimuli.
parental investment（亲本投资）: The time and energy parents must spend raising their offspring.
sexual script（性脚本）: Socially learned program of sexual responsiveness.
date rape（约会强暴）: Unwanted sexual violation by social acquaintance in the context of a consensual dating situation.

Motivation for Personal Achievement

People have varying needs for achievement. Motivation for achievement is influenced by how people interpret success and failure.
Two attributional style, optimism and pessimism, lead to different attitudes toward achievement and influence motivation.
Organizational psychologists study human motivation in work settings.

need for achievement(n Ach, 成就需要）: An assumed basic human need to strive for achievement of goals that motivates a wide range of behavior and thinking. It reflects individual differences in the value people place on planning and working toward goals.
attribution（归因）:Judgment about the causes of outcomes. People make attribution along the dimensions of internal versus external, global versus specific, and stable versus unstable.
organizational psychologist（组织心理学家）: Psychologist who studies various aspects of the human work environment, such as communication among employees, socialization or enculturation of workers, leadership, job satisfaction, stress and burnout, and overall quality of life.
equity theory（公平理论）: A cognitive theory of work motivation that proposes that workers are motivated to maintain fair and equitable relationships with other relevant persons; also, a model that postulates that equitable relationships are those in which the participants’ outcomes are proportional to their inputs.
expectancy theory（期望理论）: A cognitive theory of work motivation that proposes that workers are motivated when they expect their efforts and job performance to result in desired outcomes.

Emotion, Stress, and Health

Emotions

Emotion are complex patterns of changes made up of physiological arousal, cognitive appraisal, and behavioral and expressive reactions.
As a product of evolution, all humans may share a basic set of emotional responses.
Cultures, however, vary in their rules of appropriateness for displaying emotions.
Classical theories emphasize different parts of emotional response, such as peripheral bodily reactions or central neural processes.
More contemporary theories emphasize the appraisal of arousal.
Subjective well-being is influenced by both genetics and life experiences.

emotion（情绪）: A complex pattern of changes, including physiological arousal, feelings, cognitive processes, and behavioral reactions, made in response to a situation perceived to be personally significant.
James-Lange theory of emotion（詹姆斯—兰格情绪理论）: A peripheral-feedback theory of emotion stating that an eliciting stimulus triggers a behavioral response that sends different sensory and motor feedback to the brain and creates the feeling of a specific emotion.
Cannon—Bard theory of emotion（坎农—巴德情绪理论）: A theory stating that an emotional stimulus produces two co-occurring reactions—arousal and experience of emotion—that do not cause each other.
two-factor theory of emotion（情绪的双因素理论）: The theory that emotional experiences arise from autonomic arousal and cognitive appraisal.
cognitive appraisal theory of emotion（情绪的认知评价理论）: A theory stating that the experience of emotion is the joint effect of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal, which serves to determine how an ambiguous inner state of arousal will be labeled.
emotion regulation: The process through which people change the intensity and duration of the emotions they experience.
subjective well-being（主观幸福感）: Individuals’ overall evaluation of life satisfaction and happiness.
positive psychology（积极心理学）: A movement within psychology that applies research to provide people with the knowledge and skills that allow them to experience fulfilling lives.

Stress of Living

Stress can arise from negative or positive events. At the root of most stress are change and the need to adapt to environmental, biological, physical, and social demands.
Physiological stress reactions are regulated by the hypothalamus and a complex interaction of the hormonal and nervous systems.
Depending on the type of stressor and its effect over time, stress can be a mild disruption or lead to health-threatening reactions.
Cognitive appraisal is a primary moderator variable of stress.
Coping strategies either focus on problems (taking direct actions) or attempt to regulate emotions
Cognitive reappraisal and restructuring can be used to cope with stress.
Social support is also a significant stress moderator, as long as it is appropriate to the circumstances.
Stress can lead to positive changes such as post-traumatic growth.

stress（应激）: The pattern of specific and nonspecific responses an organism makes to stimulus events that disturb its equilibrium and tax or exceed its ability to cope.
stressor（应激源）: An internal or external event or stimulus that induces stress.
acute stress（急性应激）: A transient state of arousal with typically clear onset and offset patterns.
chronic stress（慢性应激）: A continuous state of arousal in which an individual perceives demands as greater than the inner and outer resources available for dealing with them.
fight-or flight response（战斗或逃跑反应）: A sequence of internal activities triggered when an organism is faced with a threat; prepares the body for combat and struggle or for running away to safety; recent evidence suggests that the response is characteristic only of males.
tend-and-befriend response（照料和结盟反应）: A response to stressor that is hypothesized to be typical for females; stressors prompt females to protect their offspring and join social groups to reduce vulnerability of their offspring.
general adaptation syndrome(GAS, 一般适应症候群）: The pattern of nonspecific adaptational physiological mechanisms that occurs in response to continuing threat by almost any serious stressor.
psychosomatic disorder.（心身失调）: Physical disorder aggravated by or primarily attributable to prolonged emotional stress or other psychological causes.
life-change unit（生活变化单位）: In stress research, the measure of the stress levels of different types of changes experienced during a given period.
post-traumatic stress disorder（创伤后应激障碍）: An anxiety disorder characterized by the persistent re-experience of traumatic events through distressing recollections, dreams, hallucinations, or dissociative flashbacks; develops in response to rapes, life-threatening events, severe injury, and natural disasters.
coping（应对）: The process of dealing with internal or external demands that are perceived to be threatening or overwhelming.
stress moderator variable（压力调节变量）: Variable that changes the impact of a stressor on a given type of stress reaction.
anticipatory coping（预先应对）: Efforts made in advance of a potentially stressful event to overcome, reduce, or tolerate the imbalance between perceived demands and available resources.
perceived control（知觉控制）: The belief that one has the ability to make a difference in the course of the consequences of some event or experience; often helpful in dealing with stressors.
social support（社会支持）: Resources, including material aid, socio-emotional support, and informational aid, provided by others to help a person cope with stress.

Health Psychology

Health psychology is devoted to treatment and prevention of illness.
The biopsychosocial model of health and illness looks at the connections among physical, emotional, and environmental factors in illness.
Illness prevention focuses on lifestyle factors such as smoking and AIDS-risk behaviors.
Psychological factors influence immune function.
Psychosocial treatment of illness adds another dimension to patient treatment.
Health-care providers are at risk for burnout, which can be minimized by appropriate situational changes in their helping environment.

health psychology（健康心理学）: The field of psychology devoted to understanding the ways people stay healthy, the reasons they become ill, and the ways they respond when they become ill.
health（健康）: A general condition of soundness and vigor of body and mind; not simply the absence of illness or injury.
biopsychosocial model（生物心理社会模型）: A model of health and illness that suggest links among the nervous system, the immune system, behavioral styles, cognitive processing, and environmental domains of health.
wellness（最佳健康）: Optimal health, incorporating the ability to function fully and actively over the physical, intellectual, emotional, spiritual, social, and environmental domains of health.
health promotion（健康促进）: The development and implementation of general strategies and specific tactics to eliminate or reduce the risk that people will become ill.
relaxation response（放松反应）: A condition in which muscle tension, cortical activity, heart rate, and blood pressure decrease and breathing slows.
biofeedback（生物反馈）: A self-regulatory technique by which an individual acquires voluntary control over nonconscious biological processes.
psychoneuroimmunology（心理神经免疫学）: The research area that investigates interactions between psychological processes, such as responses to stress, and the function of the immune system.
job burnout（职业倦怠）: The syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment, often experienced by workers in high-stress jobs.

Understanding Human Personality

Trait Personality Theories

Some theorists view traits—attributes along continuous dimensions—as the building blocks of personality.
The five-factor model is a personality system that maps out the relationships among common trait words, theoretical concepts, and personality scales.
Twin and adoption studies reveal that personality traits are partially inherited.
People display behavioral consistency when situations are defined with respect to relevant psychological features.

personality（人格）: The psychological qualities of an individual that influence a variety of characteristic behavior patterns across different situations.
trait（特质）: Enduring personal quality or attribute that influence behavior across situations.
five-factor model（五因素模型）: A comprehensive descriptive personality system that maps out the relationships among common traits, theoretical concepts, and personality scales; informally called the Big Five.
consistency paradox（一致性矛盾）: The observation that personality ratings across time and among different observers are consistent while behavior ratings across situations are not consistent.

Psychodynamic Theories

Freud’s psychodynamic theory emphasizes instinctive biological energies as sources of human motivation.
Basic concepts of Freudian theory include psychic energy as powering and directing behavior, early experiences as key determinants of lifelong personality, psychic determinism, and powerful unconscious processes.
Personality structure consists of the id, the superego, and the reconciling ego.
Unacceptable impulses are repressed and ego defense mechanisms are developed to lessen anxiety and bolster self-esteem.
Post-Freudians like Adler, Horney, and Jung put greater emphasis on ego functioning and social variables and less on sexual urges. They saw personality development as a lifelong process.

psychodynamic personality theory（心理动力学的人格理论）: Theory of personality that shares the assumption that personality is shaped by and behavior is motivated by inner forces.
libido（力比多）: The psychic energy that drives individuals toward sensual pleasures of all types, especially sexual ones.
fixation（固着）: A state in which a person remains attached to objects or activities more appropriate for an earlier stage of psychosexual development.
psychic determinism（精神决定论）: The assumption that mental and behavioral reactions are determined by previous experiences.
unconscious（无意识）: The domain of the psyche that stores repressed urges and primitive impulses.
id（本我）: The primitive, unconscious part of the personality that represents the internalization of society’s values, standards, and morals.
superego（超我）: The aspect of personality that represents the internalization of society’s values, standards, and morals.
ego（自我）: The aspect of personality involved in self-preservation activities and in directing instinctual drives and urges into appropriate channels.
repression（压抑）: The basic defense mechanism by which painful or guilt-producing thoughts, feelings, or memories are excluded from conscious awareness.
ego defense mechanism（自我防御机制）: Mental strategy(conscious or unconscious) used by the ego to defend itself against conflicts experienced in the normal course of life.
anxiety（焦虑）: An intense emotional response caused by the preconscious recognition that a repressed conflict is about to emerge into consciousness.
collective unconscious（集体无意识）: The part of an individual’s unconscious that is inherited, evolutionarily developed, and common to all members of the species.
archetype（原型）: A universal, inherited, primitive, and symbolic representation of a particular experience or object.
analytic psychology（分析心理学）: A branch of psychology that views the person as a constellation of compensatory internal forces in a dynamic balance.

Humanistic Theories

Humanistic theories focus on self-actualization—the growth potential of the individual.
These theories are holistic, dispositional, and phenomenological.
Contemporary theories in the humanist tradition focus on individuals’ life stories.

self-concept（自我概念）: A person’s mental model of his or her typical behaviors and unique qualities.
self-actualization（自我实现）: A concept in personality psychology referring to a person’s constant striving to realize his or her potential and to develop inherent talents and capabilities.
unconditional positive regard（无条件积极关注）: Complete love and acceptance of an individual by other person, such as a parent for a child, with no conditions attached.
psychobiography（心理传记）: The use of psychological (especially personality) theory to describe and explain an individual’s course through life.

Social-learning theorists focus on understanding individual differences in behavior and personality as a consequence of different histories of reinforcement.
Cognitive theorists emphasize individual differences in perception and subjective interpretation of the environment.
Julian Rotter emphasized people’s expectancies about rewards, including general internal or external locus of control orientations. People who have an external locus of control orientation believe that rewards are largely contingent on environmental factors.
Walter Mischel explored the origins of behaviors as interactions of persons and situations. Mischel’s theory focuses on encodings, expectancies and beliefs, affects, goals and values, and competencies and self regulatory plans.
Albert Bandura described the reciprocal determinism among people, environments, and behaviors.

expectancy（期望）: The extent to which people believe that their behaviors in particular situations will bring about rewards.
locus of control（控制点）: People’s general expectancy about the extent to which the rewards they obtain are contingent on their own actions or on environmental factors.
reciprocal determinism（交互决定）: A concept of Albert Bandura’s social-learning theory that refers to the notion that a complex reciprocal interaction exists among the individual, his or her behavior, and environmental stimuli and that each of these components affects the others.
self-efficacy（自我效能）: A belief that one can perform adequately in a particular situation.

Self Theories

Self theories focus on the importance of the self-concept for a full understanding of human personality.
People engage in behaviors such as self-handicapping to maintain self-esteem.
Terror management theory suggests that self-esteem helps people cope with thoughts about death.
Cross-cultural research suggests that individualistic cultures give rise to independent construals of self, whereas collectivist cultures give rise to interdependent construals of self.

self-esteem（自尊）: A generalized evaluative attitude toward the self that influences both moods and behavior and that exerts a powerful effect on a range of personal and social behaviors.
self-handicapping（自我妨碍）: The process of developing, in anticipation of failure, behavioral reactions and explanations that minimize ability deficits as possible attributions for the failure.
terror management theory: A theory proposing that self-esteem helps people cope with the inevitability of death.
independent construal of self（独立的自我构建）: Conceptualization of the self as an individual whose behavior is organized primarily by reference to one’s own thoughts, feelings, and actions, rather than by reference to the thoughts, feelings, and the actions of others.
interdependent construal of self（互依的自我构建）: Conceptualization of the self as...?

Comparing Personality Theories

Personality theories can be contrasted with respect to the emphasis they put on heredity versus environment; learning processes versus innate laws of behavior; the past, present, or future; consciousness versus unconsciousness; and inner dispositions versus outer situations.
Each theory makes different contributions to the understanding of human personality.

Assessing Personality

personality inventory（人格量表）: A self-report questionnaire used for personality assessment that includes a series of items about personal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
projective test（投射测验）: A method of personality assessment in which an individual is presented with a standardized set of ambiguous, abstract stimuli and asked to interpret their meanings; the individual’s responses are assumed to reveal inner feelings, motives, and conflicts.

Personality characteristics are assessed by both objective and projective tests.
The most common objective test, the MMPI-2, is used to diagnose clinical problems.
The NEO-PI is an objective test that measures five major dimensions of personality.
Projective tests of personality ask people to respond to ambiguous stimuli.
Two important projective tests are the Rorschach test and the TAT.

Psychological Disorders

The Nature of Psychological Disorders

Abnormality is judged by the degree to which a person’s actions resemble a set of indictors that include distress, maladaptiveness, irrationality, unpredictability, unconventionality, observer discomfort, and violation of standards or societal norms.
Objectivity is an important problem for discussions of mental illness.
Classification systems for psychological disorders should provide a common shorthand for communicating about general types of a psychopathologies and specific cases.
The most widely accepted diagnostic and classification system is DSM-IV-TR
The biological approach to the etiology of mental illness concentrates on abnormalities in the brain, biochemical processes, and genetic influences.
Psychological approaches include psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and sociocultural models.

psychopathological functioning（心理病理功能） : Disruptions in emotional. behavioral, or thought processes that lead to personal distress or block one’s ability to achieve important goals.
abnormal psychology（变态心理学）: The area of psychological investigation concerned with understanding the nature of individual pathologies of mind, mood, and behavior.
psychological diagnosis（心理诊断）: The label given to psychological abnormality by classifying and categorizing the observed behavior pattern into an approved diagnostic system.
DSM-IV-TR: The current diagnostic and statistical manual of the American Psychological Association that classifies, defines, and describes mental disorders.
comorbidity（共病）: The experience of more than one disorder at the same time.
neurotic disorder（神经症性障碍）: Mental disorder in which a person does not have signs of brain abnormalities and does not display grossly irrational thinking or violate basic norms but does experience subjective distress; a category dropped from DSM-III
psychotic disorder（精神症性障碍）: Severe mental disorder in which a person experiences impairments in reality testing manifested through thought, emotional, or perceptual difficulties; no longer used as diagnostic category after DSM-III
insanity（精神病）: The legal (not clinical) designation for the state of an individual judged to be legally irresponsible or incompetent.
etiology（病理学）: The causes of, or factors related to, the development of a disorder.

Anxiety Disorders

The five major type of anxiety disorder are generalized, panic, phobic, obsessive-compulsive, and post-traumatic stress.
Research has confirmed genetic and brain bases for anxiety disorders as well as behavioral and cognitive components of causality.

anxiety disorder（焦虑障碍）
generalized anxiety disorder（广泛性焦虑障碍）
panic disorder（惊恐障碍）
agoraphobia（广场恐惧症）
fear（恐惧）
phobia（恐惧症）
social phobia（社交恐惧症）
specific phobia（特殊恐惧症）
obsessive-compulsive disorder （强迫症，OCD)

Mood Disorders

Major depressive disorder is the most common mood disorder; bipolar disorder is much rarer.
People have genetic predispositions toward mood disorders.
Mood disorders change the way people respond to life experiences.
Women’s higher level of major depressive disorder may reflect differences in negative life experiences as well as cognitive responses to those experiences.
Suicides are most frequent among people suffering from depression.

mood disorder（心境障碍）
major depressive disorder（重度抑郁症）
bipolar disorder（双相障碍）
manic episode（躁狂阶段）
learned helplessness（习得性无助）

Somatoform Disorders

Somatoform disorder such as hypochondriasis, somatization disorder, and conversion disorder are characterized by circumstances in which physical illnesses or complaints cannot be fully explained by actual medical conditions.
Dissociative disorders involve a disruption of the

somatoform disorder（躯体形式障碍）
hypochondriasis（疑病症）
somatization disorder（躯体化障碍）
conversion disorder（转换性障碍）
dissociative disorder（分离性障碍）
dissociative amnesia（分离性失忆）
dissociative fugue（分离性神游）
dissociative identity disorder （分离性身份识别障碍）

Schizophrenic Disorders

schizophrenic disorder（精神分裂症）
delusion（妄想）

Personality Disorders

personality disorder（人格障碍）
borderline personality disorder（边缘型人格障碍）
antisocial personality disorder（反社会型人格障碍）

Psychological Disorders of Childhood

attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder （注意缺陷多动障碍，ADHD)
autistic disorder（孤独症）

The Stigma of Mental illness

stigma（污名）

Therapies for Psychological Disorders

Each person constructs his or her own social reality.
Social perception is influenced by beliefs and expectations.
Attribution theory describes the judgments people make about the causes of behaviors.
Several biases, such as the fundamental attribution error, self-serving biases, and self-fulfilling prophecies, can creep into attributions and other judgments and behaviors.

social psychology（社会心理学）: The branch of psychology that studies the effect of social variables on individual behavior, attitudes, perceptions, and motives; also studies group and intergroup phenomena.
social cognition（社会认知）: The process by which people select, interpret, and remember social information.
social perception（社会知觉）: The process by which a person comes to know or perceive the personal attributes.
attribution theory（归因理论）: A social-cognitive approach to describing the ways the social perceiver uses information to generate causal explanations.
covariation model（协变模型）: A theory that suggests that people attribute a behavior to a causal factor if that factor was present whenever the behavior occurred but was absent whenever it didn’t occur.
fundamental attribution error(FAE, 基本归因错误）: The dual tendency of observers to underestimate the impact of situational factors and to overestimate the influence of dispositional factors on a person’s behavior.
self-serving bias（自我服务偏差）: An attributional bias in which people tend to take credit for their successes and deny responsibility for their failures.
self-fulfilling prophecy（自我实现预言）: A prediction made about some future behavior or event that modifies interactions so as to produce what is expected.

The Power of the Situation

Being assigned to play a social role, even in artificial settings, can cause individuals to act contrary to their beliefs, values, and dispositions.
Social norms shape the attitudes and behaviors of group members.
Classic research by Sherif and Asch illustrated the informational and normative forces that lead to conformity.
Minority influence may arise as a consequence of informational influence.
Milgram’s studies on obedience are a powerful testimony to the influence of the situational factors that can lead ordinary people to sanction and participate in organized aggression.

social role（社会角色）: A socially defined pattern of behavior that is expected of a person who is functioning in a given setting or group.
rule（规则）: Behavioral guideline for acting in a certain way in a certain situation.
social norm（社会规范）: The expectation a group has for its members regarding acceptable and appropriate attitudes and behaviors.
conformity（从众）: The tendency of people to adopt the behaviors, attitudes, and values of other members of a reference group.
informational influence（信息性影响）: Group effects that arise from individuals’ desire to be correct and right and to understand how best to act in a given situation.
normative influence（规范性影响）: Group effects that arise from individuals’ desire to be liked, accepted, and approved of by others.
norm crystallization（规范具体化）: The convergency of the expectation of a group of individuals into a common perspective as they talk and carry out activities together.
group polarization（群体极化）: The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the decisions that would be made by the members acting alone.
groupthink（群体思维）: The tendency of a decision-making group to filter out undesirable input so that a consensus may be reached, especially if it is in line with the leader’s viewpoint.

Attitudes, Attitude Change, and Action

Attitudes are positive or negative evaluations of objects, events, or ideas.
Not all attitudes accurately predicts behaviors; they must be highly accessible or highly stable.
According to the elaboration likelihood model, the central route to persuasion relies on careful analyses of arguments, whereas the peripheral route relies on superficial features of persuasive situations
Dissonance theory and self-perception theory consider attitude formation and change that arise from behavioral acts.
To bring about compliance, people can exploit reciprocity, consistency, and commitment.

attitude（态度）: The learned, relatively stable tendency to respond to people, concepts, and events in an evaluative way.
persuasion（说服）: Deliberate efforts to change attitudes.
elaboration likelihood model（精细可能性模型）: A theory of persuasion that defines how likely it is that people will focus their cognitive processes to elaborate upon a message and therefore follow the central and peripheral routes to persuasion.
cognitive dissonance（认知失调）: The theory that the tension-producing effects of incongruous cognitions motivate individuals to reduce such tension.
self-perception theory（自我知觉理论）: The idea that people observe themselves to figure out the reasons they act as they do; people infer what their internal states are by perceiving how they are acting in a given situation.
compliance（顺从）: A change in behavior consistent with a communication source’s direct requests.
reciprocity norm（互惠规范）: Expectation that favors will be returned—if someone does something for another person, that person should do something in return.

Prejudice

Even arbitrary, minimal cues can yield prejudice when they define an in-group and an out-group.
Stereotypes affect the way in which people evaluate behaviors and information in the world.
Implicit prejudice often has an impact on people’s behavior.
Researchers have eliminated some of the effects of prejudice by creating situations in which members of different groups must cooperate to reach shared goals.
Cross-cultural studies also suggest that friendship plays an important role in eliminating prejudice.

prejudice（偏见）: A learned attitude toward a target object, involving negative affect (dislike or fear), negative beliefs (stereotypes) that justify the attitude, and a behavioral intention to avoid, control, dominate, or eliminate the target object.
social categorization: The process by which people organize the social environment by categorizing themselves and others into groups.
in-group（内群体）: A group with which people identify as members.
out-group（外群体）: A group with which people do not identify.
in-group bias（内群体偏见）: People’s tendency to favor members of their own group over members of other groups.
racism（种族主义）: Discrimination against people based on their skin color or ethnic heritage.
sexism（性别主义）: Discrimination against people because of their sex.
stereotype（刻板印象）: Generalization about a group of people in which the same characteristics are assigned to all members of a group.
implicit prejudice: Prejudice that exists outside an individual’s conscious awareness.
contact hypothesis（接触假设）: The prediction that contact between groups will reduce prejudice only if the contact includes features such as cooperation toward shared goals.

Interpersonal attraction is determined in part by proximity, physical attractiveness, similarity, and reciprocity.
Loving relationships are defined with respect to passion, intimacy, and commitment.
A culture’s attachment style affects the quality of relationships.

Aggression, Altruism, and Prosocial Behavior

Individual differences in aggressive behavior reflect genetics, brain function, and personality profiles.
Frustration and provocation can lead to aggression.
Cultures provide different norms for aggressive behavior.
Researchers have tried to explain why people engage in prosocial behaviors, particularly altruistic behaviors that do not serve their own interests.
Evolutionary explanations focus on kinship and reciprocity.
Bystander intervention studies show that situations largely determine who is likely or unlikely to help in emergencies.

aggression（攻击）: Behaviors that cause psychological or physical harm to another individual.
prosocial behavior（亲社会行为）: Behavior that is carried out with the goal of helping other people.
altruism（利他行为）: Prosocial behaviors a person carries out without considering his or her own safety or interest.
impulsive aggression（冲动性攻击）: Emotion-driven aggression in reaction to the heat of the moment,
instrumental aggression（工具性攻击）: Cognition-based and goal-directed aggression carried out with premeditated thought, to achieve specific aims.
frustration-aggression hypothesis（挫折 - 攻击假设）: According to this hypothesis, frustration occurs in situations in which people are prevented or blocked from attaining their goals; a rise in frustration then leads to a great probability of aggression.
reciprocal altruism（互惠性利他主义）: The idea that people perform altruistic behaviors because they expect that others will perform altruistic behaviors for them in turn.
bystander intervention（旁观者介入）: Willingness to assist a person in need of help.
diffusion of responsibility（责任分散）: In emergency situations, the larger the number of bystanders, the less responsibility any one of the bystanders feels to help.

心理学与生活

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